The Ram Setu: History, Literature, and Construction

According to Valmiki’s Ramayana, when Lord Rama’s penance failed to elicit a response from the Sea God, he prepared to hurl the Brahmastra into the ocean. At this juncture, the Sea God appeared before Rama, pleaded with him, and suggested that Nala lead the construction of the bridge. Following this advice, Lord Rama refrained from using his weapon on the sea.

In the Ramopakhyana of the Mahabharata (3.267.32), there is no mention of Lord Rama throwing a weapon into the sea. Instead, it is said that the Sea God appeared to Rama in a dream and assured him that he would ensure anything thrown by Nala into the ocean would not sink. A similar account is found in the Setumahatmya section of the Skanda Purana (Chapter 2).

According to the Srimad Bhagavata Purana (9.10.13), when the Sea God failed to respond even after Rama fasted and prayed for three days, Rama became enraged. Terrified by his wrath, the Sea God immediately appeared before him.

Interestingly, the Hanuman Nataka or Mahanataka (Act 7) does not mention Rama hurling a weapon at the sea either.

But in the Uttarakanda of the Padma Purana (Chapter 169), a different version of the story emerges. It is said that Rama used a weapon to dry up the ocean’s waters. On the Sea God’s plea, he later restored the waters with the Varunastra. This version is also found in the Tattvasangraha Ramayana (6.7) and is a popular narrative in southern India.

The Bhattikavya, composed in the 7th century by the poet Bhatti (or Bhartrihari), and the Indonesian Ramayana Kakawin mention a similar event. According to them, Rama’s assault on the sea caused the death of many marine creatures. Moved by the Sea God’s entreaty, Rama later saved the creatures.

In the Adbhuta Ramayana (Chapter 16), however, a strikingly different tale is recounted. Here, it is not Rama but Lakshmana who leaps into the sea, using his immense energy to dry up its waters. With Rama’s help, Lakshmana is eventually pacified, and the ocean’s waters are restored.

According to the Anamaka Jataka, Lord Indra, disguised as a small monkey, appeared to offer the idea of constructing the bridge. In the 19th-century book Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies by J. A. Dubois, an abridged version of the Ramayana story mentions that Hanuman single-handedly built the bridge. He magnified his body and carried stones equal to the number of hairs on his body in each trip to complete the construction.

In Livro Da Saita (1601) by J. Fenicio, it is said that Nala received a blessing from Lord Rama, granting him four hands, enabling him to expedite the bridge construction.

The Tattvasangraha Ramayana (6.6) tells of the sea princess Kanyakumari approaching Rama with a marriage proposal before the bridge's construction. However, Lord Rama, committed to monogamy, declined her proposal and commenced building the bridge.

In Valmiki's Ramayana, Nala informs Lord Rama that he possesses the same engineering prowess as his father, Vishwakarma, and that he inherited this ability through a divine boon from his father. Under Nala's leadership, the bridge construction began.

In Madhava Kandali’s Assamese Ramayana (5.40), a boon given to Nala states that any stone touched by him would not sink in water. Similarly, in the Ranganatha Ramayana (6.25), a sage blesses Nala, saying that anything he throws into the sea will float. In Krittivasi Ramayana (5.45), Brahma grants Nala a boon, declaring, "Stones touched by Nala will float on water." Utilizing this blessing, Nala began the construction of the bridge. First, bundles of reeds growing along the seashore were floated on the water. Gradually, stones and trees were layered over them to build the bridge.

According to Tulsidas’s Ramcharitmanas (5.59.1), the same boon from Brahma was bestowed upon both Nala and his brother Neela.

In many versions, this boon is described as a curse. In Ananda Ramayana (1.10.67), a Brahmin curses Nala, causing anything he touches to float on water. According to the Kashmiri Ramayana, a sage cursed Nala following a quarrel with a washerman. In a popular North Indian tale, the sea god Varuna explains that Nala and Neela’s stones would not sink due to the effect of their curse.

The Iranian Khotani Ramayana tells of a monkey, Nanda (or Nala), cursed by a Brahmin to drown in water. Later, the Brahmin relented under the persuasion of others and altered the curse, declaring that anything Nala threw into the water would never sink. Similarly, the Bhavartha Ramayana (6.40) also presents the idea of a curse instead of a boon.

The modern popular legend of floating stones marked with the name "Ram" is represented by texts such as the Ananda Ramayana, 1.10.196–200, Bhavartha Ramayana 5.40, and Bhushundi Ramayana. Bhushundi Ramayana believes that the beginning of the Ram Setu took place on the Dashami Tithi, or the 10th day, of the dark fortnight in the month of Pausha and was completed on the Trayodashi Tithi, or the 13th day.

Another famous story connected with the building of the bridge is that of a squirrel helping in building the bridge and getting a blessing by Lord Rama in the form of a soft touch on its back. The story of this incident seems to have originated from the works of Albar Bipraranayan, and it is also seen in Ranganatha Ramayana, 6.28, Krittivasi Ramayana, 5.47, Balaram Das's Ramayana, and some Punjabi folk traditions.

The Valmiki Ramayana does not mention any obstacles during the bridge construction. However, other texts like Setubandha (7.8), Janakiharana (14.46), Balramayana (8.52), Ranganatha Ramayana (6.25), Thorave Ramayana (6.5), Marathi Ramayana Ramavijaya, Malaysian Hikayat Seri Rama and Hikayat Maharaja Ravan, Sri Lankan Ramakeerti (Chapter 7), Thai Ramakien (Chapter 26), Lao Ram Jataka, and Mahanataka describe various hindrances. These include interference from sea creatures, serpents, the demon Ganga-Mahasura, illusions created by Ravana, Ravana’s son Simhanada and demoness Prabhanjani, or the magical efforts of Vibhishana’s daughter Benjakai.

The direct mention of a Shivalinga installation before the bridge construction is absent in the Valmiki Ramayana. It only mentions Rama pointing out a spot to Sita on their return journey, saying that Lord Shiva blessed him there (6.123.20). However, the installation of a Shivalinga is noted in texts like the Narada Purana (Uttara Kanda, Chapter 76), Narasimha Purana (Chapter 52), Kurma Purana (Chapter 21), Saura Purana (Chapter 30), Brihaddharma Purana (Poorvakhanda, Chapter 22), and Padma Purana (Patalakanda 112.222 and Srishtikanda, Chapter 40).

The Skanda Purana (Brahma Kanda, Setumahatmya, Chapters 7 and 44–47) and Krittivasi Ramayana (5.48 and 6.122) describe the installation of a Shivalinga both before and after the battle. The Ananda Ramayana (1.10.69–114), Bhavartha Ramayana (6.74–76), and Ranganatha Ramayana (6.160–161) recount its installation after the war. The Adhyatma Ramayana (6.4.1) and Ramcharitmanas (6.2) explicitly mention that Rama established the Shivalinga during the bridge's construction.

In the Santal Ramayana, Rama defeats Ravana with the help of the Santal people and constructs a Shiva temple. Rama and Sita subsequently worship Mahadev there regularly.

A North Indian folktale narrates how Hanuman was carrying the Govardhan hill for the bridge’s construction but learned midway that the work was complete. He left the hill there, and later, Lord Rama declared that during His incarnation as Krishna in the Dwapara Yuga, He would hold this beloved Govardhan on His finger for seven days to protect the people of Braj.

While these stories exhibit variations from the Valmiki Ramayana, two fundamental differences stand out. First, in some versions, the Ram Setu was never constructed. According to Bimalasuri's Paumachariyam, Nala defeats a king named Samudra and creates a means to cross the ocean. In Hemachandra’s Jain Ramayana (Chapter 7), Rama and Lakshmana travel to Lanka via the sky with their army and defeat two kings, Samudra and Setu. Similarly, the Uttarapurana by Gunabhadra (Chapter 68.522) describes Rama and Lakshmana reaching Lanka in an aerial vehicle.

According to the Abhisheka Nataka by Bhasa and the medieval Javanese drama Ram-Sinta, when Lord Rama was about to unleash his weapon upon the ocean, Varuna, the god of water, appeared and split the ocean in two. This allowed Lord Rama and his army to cross the sea by walking on the exposed seabed. Similarly, the Shrimad Bhagavatam (2.7.23) describes that Varuna, terrified by Rama’s wrathful gaze, created a pathway through the ocean for his army to cross.

In a "different cosmological version" of the Ramayana described in the Patalakhanda of the Padma Purana, no bridge was constructed over the ocean. Instead, Mahadeva provided a massive, magical bow (Ajagava) which enabled everyone to cross the sea. In the tribal Ramayana of Bihar, Hanuman enlarged his body and used his tail to create a pathway, allowing the army to cross the ocean. This peculiar incident is also referenced in J. Fenicio’s Livro Da Saita (1601), De Polier’s Mythologie des Hindous (18th century), and even in Cambodian artwork.

Another extraordinary story involves the permanent destruction of the Ram Setu after its purpose was fulfilled. According to the Iranian Khotani Ramayana, the bridge was dismantled immediately after the monkey army reached Lanka to prevent anyone from fleeing the battlefield. Similar accounts of the bridge's destruction appear in the Skanda Purana (Setumahatmya, Chapter 30; Nagarakhanda, Chapter 101), Ranganatha Ramayana (6.161), Ananda Ramayana (1.12.48), Thorave Ramayana (6.54), Krittivasi Ramayana (6.121), Tatvasangraha Ramayana (6.35), and the Padma Purana (Srishtikhanda, Chapter 35.135).

This again finds its place in historical accounts such as in Al-Biruni’s India, English translation, 1.307, De Open Deure by A. Rogerius in the 17th century, P. Baldaeus’s Afgodery der Oost-Indische Heydenen, O. Dapper’s Asia, even a Portuguese account of 1774 lists it; all these accounts give different reasons for the dissolution of the Ram Setu after the destruction of Ravana.

-- Part Two --

No literature has paralleled the determination of the bridge-building in the Valmiki Ramayana. For the narration of the bridge construction, Valmiki does not make use of metaphors, allegories, and symbolic languages. He goes on pain-stakingly to relate step by step how this miraculous feat was achieved-no more a miracle, but an engineering skill well executed.

To understand this better, the verses related to the bridge construction from the 22nd Sarga of the Yuddha Kanda in Valmiki Ramayana may be broadly categorized under three main heads:

Land Survey
Preparatory Phase
Bridge Construction

Land Survey:

Although there are no direct verses about the survey, subsequent descriptions allow us to infer certain details. The bridge was constructed by dropping trees and stones into the ocean. For this task, identifying a relatively shallow part of the ocean and the closest point to Lanka was crucial. This was precisely what the monkey army achieved.

If we refer to Figure 1, we find that the sea between India and Lanka is far shallower than the open ocean. As a matter of fact, this narrow strip of water is today called the "Palk Strait," named after Robert Palk. Its depth ranges from a minimum of 9.1 meters to a maximum of 100 meters (Ref: Wikipedia, Britannica). Figure 2 gives more clarity on the location and depth measurements of the Palk Strait, further emphasizing its importance as the most viable route for bridge construction.

Though the area is relatively shallow, the bridge was not started haphazardly from just anywhere. Instead, the specific location closest to Lanka was chosen. Figure 3 illustrates this aspect more clearly.

Thus, one realizes that the monkey army did not start the construction at a random place but instead held a proper survey to choose the most suitable place for the bridge construction. The due preparation reflects the strategic planning made about the project.

Preparatory Phase

Let us now explore how the monkey army began preparations for constructing the bridge after selecting the most suitable location. Notably, the bridge was built using not only stones but also trees, meaning wood played a significant role in the construction process.

Translation of Verses:
“Then the great monkeys, resembling mighty mountains, uprooted mountain peaks and trees, dragging them to the seashore.”
(Valmiki Ramayana, Yuddha Kanda, Chapter 22, Verse 55)

The text further provides detailed descriptions of the types of trees used in the bridge's construction:

“They used Sal trees, Ashvakarna, bamboo, Kutaja, Arjuna, Palmyra, Tilaka, Tinisha, Bilva, Saptaparna, flowering Karnikara, mango, and Ashoka trees. The monkey leaders uprooted these trees, along with their branches, either entirely with their roots or by cutting them above the roots. Additionally, they collected palm trees, pomegranate bushes, coconut trees, Bibhitaka, Bakula, neem, and other trees from various directions.”
(Verses 56–59)

Transportation of Materials:

The epic also describes how these massive materials—trees and stones—were transported:

“The gigantic and powerful monkeys uprooted huge rocks, mountain peaks, and trees and transported them using mechanical devices.”
(Verse 60)

Speculation on Tools:

Given the context, one can fairly assume that the most basic types of tools like wooden levers, cranes, pulleys, and the like would have been used in order to move and carry heavy objects. These were the kinds of mechanical aids used universally at that time when lifting heavy loads and transportation are involved.

This preparatory phase shows the organized and methodical approach that the army of monkeys took; it was a confluence of physical effort with mechanical innovation in the construction of the bridge.

The monkeys made a ruckus in the sea by throwing stones from all directions. Another group of monkeys held a rope spanning a hundred yojanas.

Translation of the Verse:
"The monkeys agitated the ocean by hurling stones from every direction. Others held a rope spanning one hundred yojanas to maintain the alignment of the bridge."
(Valmiki Ramayana, Yuddha Kanda, Chapter 22, Verse 62)

What is important here is the fact that a long rope was used in order to align the bridge while constructing. This ensured that the bridge stayed in line and that the stones were placed in their positions accordingly. This is such a basic principle in civil engineering, where alignment is obtained by use of simple tools like strings or ropes, refer to figure 4. Even in modern days, the same principle is used in laying bricks for roads and such activities.

This step shows that the monkey army applied practical engineering principles throughout the bridge-building process. After these first preparations, the actual construction began.

Verse Translation:
"Nala began constructing the great bridge across the ocean, the lord of rivers and streams. The bridge's construction started with the extraordinary efforts of the monkeys."
(Verse 63)

Bridge Construction:

The text describes further activities of the monkeys:

Translation of Verse 64:
"Some monkeys held measuring rods while others gathered materials. Following Rama's command, hundreds and thousands of monkeys engaged in the task."

The usage of measuring rods herein is remarkable. This should have been done for the measurement of seabed uneven elevations so that the construction could be kept right on leveling. In civil engineering, the method is called "levelling," and the rods used are "graduated staffs" (see illustration 5). Levelling is an important method of measuring variance in elevation to deliver stability. Though modern methods have changed, this ancient practice is traceable from such projects as the Ram Setu construction.

Foundation Work:

The construction began with grass and wood, as detailed in Verse 65:

Translation of Verse 65:
"The monkeys, as vast as mountains and clouds, began building the bridge using grass, wood, and flowering trees."

This suggests that the initial stage of construction involved creating a wooden base. Stones were not immediately placed directly on the seabed.

Reason for the Wooden Base:

Because, had the stones been placed directly on the seabed, their different shapes, sizes, and weights would have distributed the weight in an uneven manner. This would have easily caused shifting of the soil of the seabed, or it would have misaligned the stones from their proper position, which could eventually make the structure collapse.

So, in order to avoid this problem, the monkeys first laid a base of wood and grass so that the stones could be uniformly distributed. Only then did they place stones on top of it, as can be seen in illustration 6.

What great effort, but concurrently an enlightened understanding of engineering principles still applicable in the present times!

Now, let us come to the use of grass in the construction process. It is plausible to infer that the grass was mainly used for creating ropes, which were used in tying the wood logs together. Even today, one can find ropes made of grass in use. The logs were first laid on the seabed, on top of the soil itself, and then tied using grass ropes to provide a strong base (Refer to Illustration 6).

Translation of Verses 66–67:
"Massive boulders, resembling the peaks of mountains, and enormous rocks were carried by the monkeys, who appeared as formidable as demons. When these stones and mountain peaks were hurled into the ocean, a tremendous noise arose in the vast waters."

Once the wooden base was completed, the monkey army began to bring stones and boulders, placing them carefully atop the foundation.

Engineering the Bridge:

This method of constructing the Ram Setu demonstrates a meticulous process of laying a solid wooden base first, followed by the placement of rocks and boulders. Such an approach ensured stability and balance, reflecting both a sound plan and engineering acumen.

Thus, with careful planning and skilled execution, the legendary Ram Setu was built (see Illustration 7).

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